Goals & Progress
Gamified habit formation: why your habits need a scoreboard
You already track calories, steps, and screen time without thinking about it. The habits that shape your health, your work, and your relationships mostly run on willpower alone. Willpower is a poor fuel source. It is finite, it dips when you are tired or stressed, and it leaves you nothing to look at when the day is over.
Gamified habit formation fills that gap. A 2014 literature review by Hamari, Koivisto, and Sarsa found that gamification produced positive outcomes in the majority of the empirical studies examined, while warning that the effect depends heavily on context and on who is being studied [1]. That mix of promise and caveat is the starting point.
Adding game mechanics to ordinary behavior changes how you show up for repetitive tasks. It works only when the mechanics do real psychological work instead of sprinkling points on top. This guide covers the science underneath gamified habit formation, the five mechanics that earn their place, and the three failure modes that wreck most systems.
Gamified habit formation is the practice of layering game-design elements such as points, streaks, levels, and variable rewards onto everyday behaviors, so that each cue-routine-reward loop produces a visible progress signal during the long stretch in which a habit is still forming.
It is not a points contest, and it is not about turning your life into a video game. It is feedback design for a brain that evolved to chase signals and currently gets none from the behaviors that matter most.
What You Will Learn
- The psychological mechanisms that make gamification habit building actually work
- The five habit building game mechanics that drive real behavior change
- How to build an XP scoring system for habits from scratch
- How streaks and commitment chains keep you locked in without breaking you
- How to avoid the three gamification traps that kill motivation over time
- A complete sample gamified habit tracker you can copy today
Key Takeaways
- Gamification habit building works best when it supports autonomy, competence, and relatedness, the three needs at the center of self-determination theory [2].
- Points and XP supply the immediate feedback that goal-setting research links to better performance by directing attention and sustaining effort [3].
- Variable rewards, not fixed ones, produce the highest engagement and the strongest resistance to quitting [4].
- Small progress signals matter more than big milestones; daily wins are the single strongest driver of positive inner work life [5].
- Badges and performance graphs increase felt competence in controlled experiments on game elements [6].
- The XP Habit Ladder, our original framework on goalsandprogress.com, assigns weighted points by habit difficulty so you cannot game your own system.
- Streaks lose their pull over time unless you pair them with escalating challenge, variable rewards, or milestone recognition [4].
- The Resilient Streak Protocol, our second original framework, adds streak saves and tiers so one missed day cannot wipe out a month.
- A system that runs on extrinsic rewards alone can erode the intrinsic motivation it was meant to build, the over-justification effect [2].
Why gamification habit building beats willpower alone
The short answer is feedback. Most worthwhile habits operate in a motivational vacuum. You exercise, eat well, read, or meditate, and nothing visibly happens. No score goes up. No level pings. The reward system in your brain, which evolved to chase tangible outcomes, gets nothing to latch onto, so it redirects your attention toward behaviors that pay off immediately, like checking your phone. Gamification habit building closes that gap by manufacturing a signal where biology forgot to leave one.
Psychologists Edward Deci and Richard Ryan built the framework that explains why some feedback helps and some backfires. Their self-determination theory names three basic psychological needs that drive lasting motivation [2]:
- Autonomy: you are choosing the behavior, nobody is pushing you into it.
- Competence: you can see that you are getting better at it.
- Relatedness: it connects you to other people.
Gamified habit formation works when it satisfies autonomy, competence, and relatedness, and it fails when it ignores them, no matter how many points or badges the interface displays. Koivisto and Hamari's 2019 review of 819 studies found results that lean positive, with a remarkable share of mixed findings, and it found points, badges and leaderboards to be the most common tools by far [9]. The scoreboard is the common part. On its own it does not decide the outcome.
A 2017 experiment by Sailer, Hense, Mayr, and Mandl pinned this down element by element. Badges, leaderboards, and performance graphs increased participants' sense of competence; avatars, meaningful stories and teammates increased their sense of social relatedness [6]. That distinction is not academic trivia. It tells you which mechanic to reach for depending on which need your habit is starving, which is the difference between a system that motivates and one that just clutters your screen.
Sailer and colleagues found that badges, leaderboards and performance graphs raised how competent participants felt and how meaningful they judged the task, while avatars, meaningful stories and teammates raised the sense of relatedness [6].
This connects directly to how habits actually form. Research by Phillippa Lally at University College London found that reaching automaticity for a new behavior took a median of 66 days, with individual times ranging from 18 to 254 days depending on the habit's complexity [7].
That is a long time to keep showing up with no visible payoff, and it is far longer than the 21-day figure that gets repeated everywhere. Gamification habit building bridges that gap by giving your brain something to respond to during the unglamorous middle of habit formation, when novelty has worn off and the habit is not yet automatic.
A 2020 meta-analysis by Bai, Hew, and Huang pooled 30 classroom interventions with 3,202 participants and found a significant, medium-sized gain in learning results for gamified designs [10]. That is the strongest evidence available, and it was measured on students, so treat it as support for the idea rather than proof for your own habits.
What are the five habit building game mechanics that matter?
Not every game mechanic belongs in a habit system. Pile on badges, trophies, and achievements and you get visual noise without any added motivation. Worse, the wrong mechanic can pull a habit you genuinely care about into pure point-chasing. The research keeps pointing back to five elements that consistently do real work when applied to gamification habit building.
1. Points and XP (Experience Points)
Points give you granular, immediate feedback. Every completed task turns into a visible number, which is exactly the signal an unrewarded habit is missing.
Locke and Latham's goal-setting research, spanning 35 years and more than 40,000 participants, found that specific, challenging goals improve performance through four mechanisms: they direct attention, increase effort, support persistence, and prompt you to develop better strategies [3].
Points give a habit the same backbone a good goal has, by converting each completion into something concrete you can see accumulate. Points convert abstract habit completion into concrete, measurable progress that the brain can track and respond to over weeks and months.
2. Streaks and Chains
A streak is the simplest mechanic of all: do the thing every day and watch the number climb. Unlike a badge, which you keep once you earn it, a streak is a number you can lose tomorrow. Its pull comes from loss aversion. Kahneman and Tversky's prospect theory showed that a loss weighs more heavily than a gain of the same size [8].
Once you have built a 14-day streak, breaking it feels like throwing away something you earned. But Lally's data offers a useful release valve: missing a single day did not materially derail the habit formation process [7]. So a well-designed streak should include a grace day or a "streak save," not a rigid all-or-nothing counter that punishes you for being a normal human with the occasional bad day.
3. Levels and Progression Tiers
Levels create a sense of forward motion. You are not just repeating the same task; you are climbing. Unlike points, which count what you did today, a level reports everything you have done so far. Teresa Amabile and Steven Kramer analyzed nearly 12,000 daily diary entries from knowledge workers and found that making progress in meaningful work was the single strongest driver of positive inner work life, outranking recognition, incentives, and interpersonal support [5].
Levels take that feeling of progress, which is otherwise invisible day to day, and make it something you can point to inside your gamified habit tracker.
4. Badges and Milestones
Badges mark meaningful thresholds. They differ from points in that they are categorical rather than incremental. "First 7-Day Streak," "100 XP in One Week," "30 Days of Reading" each stands for one specific accomplishment. Sailer and colleagues found that badges in particular raised perceived competence and task meaningfulness [6]. The craft is in the calibration: a badge has to be hard enough to feel earned but reachable enough to stay motivating. Set the bar too high and it becomes wallpaper.
5. Variable Rewards and Surprise Bonuses
B.F. Skinner's work on reinforcement schedules showed that variable ratio schedules, where a reward arrives after an unpredictable number of responses, produce the highest response rates and the strongest resistance to extinction [4]. A variable ratio schedule is a reinforcement pattern in which rewards are delivered after an unpredictable number of responses, producing consistently high engagement because the brain cannot predict the next reward and stays attentive [4].
Fixed rewards quickly become expected and lose their punch; an unpredictable one keeps the brain leaning in. In a habit system this can mean random bonus XP days, surprise badge unlocks, or a weekly "loot drop" for consistent performers. It is also the single most abused mechanic on this list, which is why it comes with a warning.
| Game Element | Psychological Need Served | Best For |
|---|---|---|
| Points/XP | Competence | Daily feedback on task completion (e.g., +10 XP for morning workout) |
| Streaks | Commitment/Loss Aversion | Building consistency over time (e.g., 21-day meditation chain) |
| Levels | Competence + Progress | Long-term motivation (e.g., Level 5 = "Habit Architect") |
| Badges | Competence + Meaningfulness | Milestone recognition (e.g., "Iron Week" badge for 7/7 days) |
| Variable Rewards | Engagement/Curiosity | Preventing reward fatigue (e.g., random 2x XP days) |
How do you build an XP scoring system for gamification habit building?
This is where theory turns into something you can actually run. An XP system for habits needs three parts: a point structure, a leveling curve, and a difficulty weighting. Get the balance wrong and you will either breeze through levels without effort, which makes the whole thing meaningless, or grind on a plateau that drains the motivation you were trying to build.
The fix is to tie points to real effort and to time your milestones to the way habits actually consolidate.
Step 1: List Your Target Habits
Start with three to five habits you want to build or maintain. More than five and tracking itself becomes a chore you will abandon. Write each one down with its intended frequency: daily, three times a week, weekly. Keep the list deliberately small. The point of the system is to make a few important behaviors stick, not to inventory your entire life.
Step 2: Assign Base XP Using Difficulty Weighting
Not all habits deserve equal points. A 45-minute workout asks far more of you than drinking a glass of water, and if both pay 10 XP you will drift toward the easy one over time. Assign base XP on a 5-to-25 point scale weighted by three factors: time required, mental or physical effort, and how much you resist actually doing it. That last factor matters most, because resistance is exactly where a habit needs reinforcement.
| Difficulty Tier | Base XP | Examples |
|---|---|---|
| Easy (under 5 min, low resistance) | 5 XP | Drink water, take vitamins, 1-min stretch |
| Medium (5-20 min, moderate effort) | 10 XP | 15-min reading, journaling, short walk |
| Hard (20-45 min, significant effort) | 15 XP | Full workout, deep work session, meal prep |
| Challenge (45+ min or high resistance) | 25 XP | 1-hour study block, cold exposure, public speaking practice |
This is the core of what we call the XP Habit Ladder, our goalsandprogress.com framework for weighted habit scoring. The XP Habit Ladder assigns point values by actual difficulty rather than by simple completion, which closes off the most common way people cheat their own system: stacking easy habits for fast points while the hard, important one goes undone.
The XP Habit Ladder framework assigns weighted point values to habits based on difficulty, time, and resistance level, preventing the common gamification trap of inflating scores with low-effort tasks.
If you have read about gamification before, you have probably met Octalysis, Yu-kai Chou's framework of eight core drives. Octalysis is a design lens: it asks which human motivations a system should pull on. The XP Habit Ladder is a scoring rule: it asks what a single completed habit is worth today. You can use both. Octalysis tells you which mechanic to reach for, and the XP Habit Ladder sets the numbers behind it.
Step 3: Set Your Leveling Curve
Levels should feel reachable early and demand more sustained effort later. That shape keeps beginners from quitting and keeps veterans from coasting. Here is a solid starting curve for a habit XP system:
| Level | Total XP Required | Title (Optional) |
|---|---|---|
| 1 | 0 (Day 1) | Rookie |
| 2 | 200 (~5 days) | Starter |
| 3 | 500 (~12 days) | Builder |
| 4 | 1,000 (~25 days) | Consistent |
| 5 | 2,000 (~50 days) | Habit Architect |
| 6 | 3,500 (~88 days) | System Master |
| 7 | 5,500 (~138 days) | Legend |
Notice that Level 5 ("Habit Architect") lands at about 50 days, just short of Lally's 66-day median [7], and Level 6 arrives at about 88 days, just past it. That timing is deliberate. You want a real milestone to arrive at the same moment the habit is starting to run on its own, so the reward and the underlying change reinforce each other instead of pulling apart.
Step 4: Add Bonus Multipliers
Flat point accumulation gets stale after a couple of weeks. Bonus multipliers inject the variable-reward element Skinner's research supports [4], but introduce them only once the base habit is steady. Here are four that work well:
- Streak multiplier: 1.5x XP after 7 consecutive days, 2x after 14 days
- Perfect day bonus: +20 XP for completing all target habits in a single day
- Random 2x day: Roll a die (or use a random number generator) each morning. On a 6, all XP doubles that day
- Challenge mode: +50% XP for a week when you add a temporary stretch habit
The random 2x day is the most effective of the four. It creates what behavioral psychologists call intermittent reinforcement, the same mechanism that makes variable ratio schedules the most persistent reinforcement type [4]. Intermittent reinforcement through random bonus XP days produces stronger habit persistence than fixed daily point rewards [4]. You will catch yourself checking the morning roll with genuine anticipation, which is precisely the point: the anticipation, not the bonus itself, is what keeps your brain engaged.
How do streaks keep you committed to your habits?
Streaks tap one of the strongest forces in behavioral psychology: loss aversion. Kahneman and Tversky's prospect theory found that a loss hurts more than a gain of the same size pleases [8]. Loss aversion is the psychological tendency, identified in Kahneman and Tversky's prospect theory research, to feel a loss more strongly than an equal gain. A broken streak registers as a real loss instead of a neutral reset [8].
Once you have built a 10-day streak, breaking it does not just mean starting over; it feels like forfeiting 10 days of effort you already banked. That sting is the engine. It is also the danger.
Streaks have a dark side. A rigid all-or-nothing counter can breed anxiety and, paradoxically, kill the motivation it was meant to protect. You miss one day, the streak snaps back to zero, and the voice in your head says "what's the point?" A smarter design borrows from habit stacking principles and builds flexibility into the chain so a single off day does not erase weeks of momentum. If you want to see the pure "don't break the chain" version of this idea, the Seinfeld strategy covers that method in depth.
Lally and colleagues reported that missing one opportunity to perform the behaviour did not materially affect the habit formation process [7].
The Resilient Streak Protocol
Instead of a binary counter, use what we call the Resilient Streak Protocol, a streak system with forgiveness built in:
- Streak saves: Earn one "save" for every 7 consecutive days, banking up to 3. Spending a save preserves your streak but earns no XP for that day, so it protects momentum without rewarding the miss.
- Streak tiers: Instead of one giant counter, track weekly streaks (7 days), monthly streaks (4 weeks), and quarterly streaks (12 weeks). Losing a daily streak no longer wipes out your monthly progress, which removes the all-or-nothing cliff.
- Recovery bonus: If a streak does break, award +5 XP for each of the first 3 days back. This rewards bouncing back instead of letting one bad day spiral into a quit.
Missing a single day does not derail the underlying habit formation process, according to Lally's automaticity research at University College London [7]. Your tracking system should reflect that reality rather than punish ordinary human inconsistency, because a system that makes you feel like a failure is a system you will eventually delete. For reward design beyond streaks, our guide on reward systems for productivity covers additional approaches.
What are the gamification traps that destroy motivation?
Gamification is not automatically good for you. A poorly built system can actively damage the motivation it was meant to support, which is the part the cheerful guides leave out. Hamari and colleagues noted that gamification outcomes depend heavily on the context in which it is applied [1]. Three traps show up again and again, in the research and in real life. Each one has a clear warning sign and a clear fix.
Trap 1: The Overjustification Effect
When an external reward becomes the main reason you do something, your internal interest in it tends to fade. This is the over-justification effect, documented extensively within Deci and Ryan's self-determination theory research [2]. If you start reading only to earn XP, the points have replaced curiosity, and the day you stop tracking is the day you stop reading. The defense is simple but easy to forget: effective gamification habit building supports habits a person already values rather than bribing them into behaviors they do not actually care about. Use the points as a mirror, not as the motive.
Trap 2: Complexity Creep
The second trap is building a system so elaborate that maintaining it becomes its own chore. If tracking your habits takes longer than doing them, something has gone wrong. A good rule: your gamification system should add no more than five minutes of daily overhead. A simple spreadsheet or a dedicated habit routine tracker handles the arithmetic so your attention stays on the habits themselves, where it belongs.
Trap 3: The Plateau Problem
Points keep stacking, levels start crawling, and the system stops feeling new. This is predictable, not a personal failing: fixed reward schedules lose their pull over time [4]. The fix is already built into the XP Habit Ladder framework through escalating challenges, periodic refreshes, and the variable-reward multipliers above. Every four to six weeks, review your habits, adjust XP values that no longer match the effort, and rotate one habit in or out to keep the system from going stale.
| Trap | Warning Signs | Fix |
|---|---|---|
| Overjustification | You only do habits when tracking is active | Reconnect with the "why" behind each habit; pause tracking for a week |
| Complexity Creep | Tracking takes 15+ minutes daily | Simplify to 3-5 core habits; automate scoring |
| Plateau | You stop checking your XP; levels feel meaningless | Add variable rewards; rotate one habit; adjust the leveling curve |
Gamify your habits: a complete gamified habit tracker you can copy
Theory is useful. A working template is better. Here is a complete gamified habit tracker you can start today with nothing more than a notebook or a spreadsheet. It puts the XP Habit Ladder framework to work with all five game elements built in, so you can see how the pieces fit together rather than assembling them from scratch.
Your Starter Setup
Pick 4 habits across different life domains:
| Habit | Frequency | Base XP |
|---|---|---|
| 20-min morning walk (Health) | Daily | 10 |
| 15-min reading (Learning) | Daily | 10 |
| 30-min deep work block (Career) | Weekdays | 15 |
| 5-min gratitude journal (Mindset) | Daily | 5 |
Maximum daily XP: 40 on weekdays with all four habits, or 25 on weekends without the work block. Layer in the streak multiplier after 7 days and the random 2x roll, and your weekly XP range opens up to roughly 175 to 400+. That built-in variance is the feature, not a rounding error; it is what keeps a week from feeling identical to the last one.
Badge Milestones to Set Up
- "First Blood": Complete all habits for the first time in one day
- "Week Warrior": 7-day streak on any single habit
- "Centurion": Reach 100 total XP
- "Iron Month": Complete 80%+ of possible XP in a 30-day period
- "Habit Architect": Reach Level 5
- "Lucky Day": Roll a 2x bonus day and complete all habits
Tools for Tracking Your Gamified Habits
You do not need a fancy app to run this system, but the right tool can shave off tracking friction. A simple spreadsheet is the recommended starting point: full control, zero cost, and nothing to learn. Reach for a dedicated app only once you know the system is sticking and you want it to nag you less.
| Tool | Best For | Note |
|---|---|---|
| Habitica | Full RPG mechanics with avatar and party system | Most feature-rich; can feel overwhelming |
| LifeRPG | Quest-based framing for goal-oriented users | Good for project-style habits |
| Streaks | Streak-focused simplicity on iOS | Minimal setup; limited customization |
| Spreadsheet | Manual control and full customization | Recommended starting point for most users |
If you are the type who wants to understand how habits work on a neurological level before building systems around them, our guide to the cue, routine and reward loop breaks down the mechanism the points are attached to. And if you are weighing two of the most popular frameworks for the underlying behavior change, our comparison of Atomic Habits vs Tiny Habits lays out which approach fits which kind of person.
XP Habit Ladder Calculator
Enter your daily habits to estimate your weekly XP range and time to each level.
Daily XP: 35
Weekly XP (with streak bonus): ~368
Days to Level 3 (Builder): ~15
Days to Level 5 (Habit Architect): ~57
Gamification habit building: your next move
Gamified habit formation is not about turning your life into a video game. It is about giving your brain the feedback, the progress signals, and the reward variety that decades of motivation research say it needs, on work that does not pay off right away.
Done well, it satisfies autonomy, competence, and relatedness. Done carelessly, it trains you to chase points and erodes the interest you started with. The XP Habit Ladder framework, grounded in self-determination theory and reinforcement science, keeps you on the right side of that line without overcomplicating your day.
The habits themselves do not change. The feedback does. And sometimes that is the only difference between a behavior that lasts 12 days and one that becomes part of who you are.
Next 10 Minutes
- Write down 3-4 habits you want to gamify and assign each a difficulty tier (easy, medium, hard, challenge)
- Open a spreadsheet or grab a notebook and create columns: Date, Habit, XP Earned, Streak Count
- Set your starting level at 1 and commit to logging today's habits before bed. The Life Goals Workbook carries the same XP Habit Ladder scoring on paper if you would rather not build the sheet
This Week
- Complete a full 7 days of habit tracking to earn your first "Week Warrior" badge and the 1.5x streak multiplier
- Review your XP totals at the end of the week and adjust any base point values that feel too easy or too punishing
- Add one variable reward element: try the random 2x XP roll to inject unpredictability into your second week
There is More to Explore
If you want the same idea applied to a to-do list instead of a habit list, see our quick ways to gamify your task list. If you want to pair your gamification system with a structured daily workflow, our guide on building a review cadence for productivity walks through the feedback loop that keeps systems honest.
If you are curious about why some habits stick and others fall apart, the why habits fail guide digs into the most common failure points.
Frequently Asked Questions
Can gamified habit formation work for people with ADHD?
Gamification can align well with ADHD brains, which tend to respond strongly to immediate feedback and novelty. The variable reward elements and short-term XP targets provide the kind of stimulation that sustained long-term goals often fail to deliver. Pairing a gamified habit system with ADHD-specific strategies like body doubling and environment design may increase success rates further.
What is the best app for gamifying habits with XP and levels?
Judge the app on two things: setup time, and whether you can change the point values yourself. A spreadsheet takes about ten minutes and lets you change every number. A full RPG app takes longer and often fixes the XP values for you, which breaks the system if your hard habit and your easy habit pay the same.
How many habits should I gamify at once?
Spread them so that no two habits fail together. A workout, a reading block and a gratitude note draw on different energy at different times of day, so a bad afternoon takes out one of them, not all three. Two habits that both need a quiet hour after work are really one habit, and the day you lose that hour you lose both. Check your list for shared cues and shared time slots before you check the count.
Do points and XP systems undermine intrinsic motivation over time?
There is a simple test for it. Stop scoring for one week and watch what you keep doing. Whatever survives the week was never running on the points. Whatever stops was, and that habit needs a different reason before you switch the scoring back on. Deci and Ryan's work explains the mechanism [2]; the one-week pause is how you find out whether it is happening to you.
How often should I update or refresh my gamification system?
Run four checks each review. A habit you completed every single day is no longer hard, so lower its XP, and a habit you skipped most should be halved or dropped. A level more than three weeks away means the curve is too steep. A changed cue, through a new job or a move, means rewriting that habit around the new cue.
Is there scientific evidence that gamification improves habit formation?
Yes, with two limits. Hamari and colleagues found positive outcomes in most studies they reviewed, and found that context moderated the result heavily [1], so a design that works for one habit may do nothing for another. Most of the evidence, including the 2020 meta-analysis by Bai, Hew and Huang [10], comes from classrooms rather than personal habit building. That analysis pooled 30 interventions with 3,202 participants and found a medium-sized gain in learning results, so the effect is real but was measured on students.
This article is part of our Habit Formation complete guide.
References
[1] Hamari, J., Koivisto, J., & Sarsa, H. "Does Gamification Work? A Literature Review of Empirical Studies on Gamification." Proceedings of the 47th Hawaii International Conference on System Sciences, 2014. DOI
[2] Ryan, R. M., & Deci, E. L. "Self-Determination Theory and the Facilitation of Intrinsic Motivation, Social Development, and Well-Being." American Psychologist, 55(1), 68-78, 2000. DOI
[3] Locke, E. A., & Latham, G. P. "Building a Practically Useful Theory of Goal Setting and Task Motivation: A 35-Year Odyssey." American Psychologist, 57(9), 705-717, 2002. DOI
[4] Ferster, C. B., & Skinner, B. F. Schedules of Reinforcement. Appleton-Century-Crofts, 1957. Archive record
[5] Amabile, T. M., & Kramer, S. J. "The Power of Small Wins." Harvard Business Review, 89(5), 70-80, 2011. Link
[6] Sailer, M., Hense, J. U., Mayr, S. K., & Mandl, H. "How Gamification Motivates: An Experimental Study of the Effects of Specific Game Design Elements on Psychological Need Satisfaction." Computers in Human Behavior, 69, 371-380, 2017. DOI
[7] Lally, P., van Jaarsveld, C. H. M., Potts, H. W. W., & Wardle, J. "How Are Habits Formed: Modelling Habit Formation in the Real World." European Journal of Social Psychology, 40(6), 998-1009, 2010. DOI
[8] Kahneman, D., & Tversky, A. "Prospect Theory: An Analysis of Decision Under Risk." Econometrica, 47(2), 263-291, 1979. DOI
[9] Koivisto, J., & Hamari, J. "The Rise of Motivational Information Systems: A Review of Gamification Research." International Journal of Information Management, 45, 191-210, 2019. DOI
[10] Bai, S., Hew, K. F., & Huang, B. "Does Gamification Improve Student Learning Outcome? Evidence from a Meta-Analysis and Synthesis of Qualitative Data in Educational Contexts." Educational Research Review, 30, 100322, 2020. DOI
