Why WOOP Works Better Than SMART Goals

WOOP the Goal Setting Alternative to SMART

WOOP goals offer a research-backed alternative to the traditional SMART goal framework that dominated personal development for decades. If you’ve set SMART goals (Specific, Measurable, Achievable, Relevant, Time-bound) only to watch them fade by February, you’re not alone. The problem isn’t your willpower or motivation. The issue lies in how SMART goals handle obstacles—or rather, how they don’t.

WOOP stands for Wish, Outcome, Obstacle, Plan. This framework combines mental contrasting with implementation intentions, two psychological strategies shown to double physical activity rates and triple study time in research settings [3][5]. Unlike SMART goals that focus on outcomes you can’t fully control, WOOP goals focus on the obstacles standing in your way and create specific if-then plans to overcome them.

This article explains why WOOP goals outperform SMART goals for ambitious personal development, backed by 20 years of research from psychologist Gabriele Oettingen [1]. You’ll learn when each framework works best, how to create your first WOOP goal, and how to integrate this approach with comprehensive goal-setting systems like the From Vision to Action Life Goal Program.

Key Takeaways

• WOOP goals combine mental contrasting with implementation intentions to bridge the gap between intention and action.
• SMART goals focus on outcomes you can’t control, while WOOP goals focus on obstacles and actionable responses.
• Research shows participants using WOOP goals tripled their study time and completed 60% more practice questions compared to traditional goal-setting [3][4].
• Mental contrasting creates strong associations between obstacles and actions, activating goal pursuit without requiring increased self-efficacy [11].
• WOOP goals work best for ambitious, long-term goals where obstacles are unpredictable or internal.
• The framework takes 10-15 minutes per goal and can be repeated weekly for ongoing challenges.
• SMART goals remain useful for short-term, measurable tasks with clear deadlines.
• WOOP goals integrate naturally with comprehensive planning systems like the From Vision to Action Life Goal Program.

The Hidden Flaw in SMART Goals

When SMART Goals Work (and When They Don’t)

SMART goals excel at creating clarity for straightforward tasks. If you need to complete a project proposal by Friday or track monthly sales numbers, the SMART framework provides structure. The problem emerges when you apply SMART to complex, long-term goals involving skill development, behavior change, or creative work.

Recent research published in Educational Psychology tested SMART goals against “do your best” goals and open exploratory goals for creative tasks [6]. The surprising finding: SMART goals produced no better results than simply telling participants to do their best. The study authors concluded that rigid frameworks might actually impede progress for tasks requiring innovation or learning complex skills [6].

The limitation becomes clear when you examine what SMART asks you to evaluate. Is your goal achievable? Relevant? But achievability depends on factors you can’t predict when setting the goal. Learning to code might take three months or twelve, depending on obstacles you haven’t encountered yet. Setting a rigid timeline creates pressure without addressing what will actually stop you—evening fatigue, confusing documentation, or fear of making mistakes.

The Missing Piece in SMART: Obstacle Planning

SMART goals treat obstacles as something to consider when judging “achievability,” then move on. This creates a critical gap. Research by Gabriele Oettingen spanning two decades shows that positive thinking alone doesn’t lead to action [1]. In studies where participants simply fantasized about desired outcomes, they experienced decreased motivation and energy compared to those who also considered obstacles [1].

The SMART framework asks whether your goal is specific enough, whether you can measure progress, whether it fits your current priorities. These are useful questions, but they don’t prepare you for the moment when your alarm goes off at 6 AM and you need to decide whether to exercise or sleep another hour. They don’t help when you sit down to write and your inner critic says your work isn’t good enough.

SMART Element	Potential Problem	Why It Fails
Specific	Over-rigid targeting	Can’t adapt when you learn new information or circumstances change
Measurable	Outcome-focused metrics	Measures results you don’t fully control rather than actions you can take
Achievable	Conservative mindset	Discourages ambitious goals that require stretching beyond comfort zone
Relevant	Present-focused	May not account for long-term vision or values that matter more than current relevance
Time-bound	Deadline pressure	Creates stress and potential failure feeling without strategies to handle setbacks

What Makes WOOP Goals Different

The Science Behind WOOP

WOOP goals were developed by psychologist Gabriele Oettingen after more than 20 years researching human motivation at New York University [1]. The framework synthesizes two evidence-based strategies: mental contrasting and implementation intentions.

Mental contrasting involves imagining your desired future outcome, then immediately identifying the main obstacle preventing you from reaching it [1]. This process creates what researchers call an “energized goal commitment.” Studies show that when people have high expectations of success and use mental contrasting, they become significantly more committed to their goals compared to those who only fantasize about positive outcomes [1].

Implementation intentions are if-then plans that specify exactly what you’ll do when a critical obstacle appears [2]. Psychologist Peter Gollwitzer’s meta-analysis of 94 studies found that implementation intentions had a medium-to-large effect on goal achievement [2]. The format is simple but powerful: “If [obstacle occurs], then I will [specific goal-directed action].”

Research shows that combining mental contrasting with implementation intentions produces better results than either strategy alone [3]. A meta-analysis published in Frontiers in Psychology examined 21 studies and found consistent positive effects of WOOP goals across diverse domains including health behaviors, academic performance, and time management [3].

The Four Steps of WOOP

The WOOP goal process takes 10-15 minutes and follows this sequence:

Wish: Identify something challenging yet feasible that you want to achieve. Keep it to 3-6 words for clarity. Examples: “Master public speaking,” “Launch freelance business,” “Run 5K without stopping.”

Outcome: Visualize the best possible result if you achieved this wish. Close your eyes and imagine where you’ll be, what you’ll do, how it will feel. Write down 2-3 sentences capturing this mental image.

Obstacle: Identify the main internal barrier preventing you from achieving your wish. Focus on what’s inside you—your thoughts, emotions, behaviors—rather than external circumstances. Common obstacles include fear, procrastination, perfectionism, self-doubt, or competing priorities.

Plan: Create an if-then response linking your obstacle to a specific action. Format: “If [obstacle occurs], then I will [immediate action I can take].” Make the action concrete and immediately doable.

Let’s walk through an example. Imagine you want to transition careers:

• Wish: “Become UX designer”
• Outcome: “I’m working at a creative agency, proud of my portfolio, solving real user problems daily. I feel fulfilled using both analytical and creative skills.”
• Obstacle: “Fear that I don’t have enough experience yet and will get rejected”
• Plan: “If I think I’m not ready to apply, then I will submit the application anyway and let the hiring manager decide. Their job is to evaluate fit, not mine.”

How Mental Contrasting Activates Your Brain

The power of WOOP goals lies in what happens at a nonconscious level. When you contrast a desired future with present obstacles, your brain creates strong associative links [11]. Research using reaction time measures shows that mental contrasting helps people automatically recognize obstacles as cues for action rather than as reasons to give up [11].

Mental contrasting strengthens the association between obstacles and goal-directed behaviors to overcome obstacles, which is created through the contrasting process [11].

This process works differently than traditional positive thinking or visualization. Oettingen’s studies found that mental contrasting leads people to nonconsciously recategorize their reality as an obstacle, which provides the energy needed to overcome it [1]. The framework doesn’t require boosting self-efficacy beliefs or changing attitudes—it works by creating automatic if-then responses at the moment obstacles appear [10].

Importantly, mental contrasting also helps you decide which goals are worth pursuing [1]. If you have low expectations of success after considering obstacles, mental contrasting leads to strategic disengagement rather than wasted effort on unattainable goals.

WOOP vs SMART: What the Research Shows

Head-to-Head Performance Data

Multiple controlled studies demonstrate WOOP goals’ effectiveness across different populations and goal types:

In a study with future anesthesiologists, participants who learned the WOOP method spent 4.3 hours per week on goal-related study tasks compared to 1.5 hours per week for those using traditional goal-setting—nearly tripling their study time [3].

Research with spousal caregivers of people with dementia found that WOOP goals training reduced stress levels by 1.7 times, improved quality of life by 1.5 times, and more than doubled positive emotions over three months [3].

High school students preparing for exams using WOOP goals completed over 60% more practice questions compared to those receiving standard preparation advice [4].

A study with stroke survivors showed that WOOP participants increased physical activity by 15% and lost over 2 kilograms within a year compared to those receiving only health information [3].

A meta-analysis examining mental contrasting with implementation intentions across 21 studies found consistent effects on goal attainment, with particularly strong results for health-related behaviors and time management [3].

Why WOOP Outperforms SMART for Personal Goals

The research reveals three key advantages:

Addresses the intention-behavior gap. Studies show that a substantial portion of people who form intentions don’t follow through with action [2]. WOOP goals create automatic obstacle-action links that trigger behavior when needed most [11]. You don’t need to remember your goal when the obstacle appears—your if-then plan activates automatically.

Flexible yet structured. SMART goals lock you into a specific outcome measured at a fixed deadline. If you set “lose 10 pounds by March” and lose only 7, you’ve “failed” even though you made significant progress. WOOP goals focus on the actions you can control. Your plan might be “If I want to skip the gym, then I will do just 15 minutes of exercise at home.” Success is measured by whether you followed your plan, not by the outcome.

Controls what you can control. Consider a SMART goal: “Get 5,000 newsletter subscribers in 25 weeks.” Subscriber growth depends on factors beyond your direct control—algorithm changes, competing content, audience preferences. A WOOP approach focuses on output: “If I feel uninspired to write, then I will publish one newsletter sharing three interesting articles I read this week.” You control publishing consistently even when outcomes vary.

Dimension	SMART Goals	WOOP Goals
Primary focus	Outcome achievement	Process and obstacle management
Timeframe approach	Fixed deadline	Flexible adaptation
Success measurement	Results achieved	Actions taken when obstacles appear
Obstacle handling	Considers in “achievable” assessment	Plans specific if-then responses
Best for	Short-term tasks, team coordination	Long-term personal development
Research backing	Mixed recent evidence	Strong meta-analytic support

When to Use WOOP Instead of SMART

Perfect Scenarios for WOOP

WOOP goals work best for goals where obstacles are internal and unpredictable. Consider using WOOP goals when:

You’re pursuing ambitious long-term goals like learning to code, changing careers, or mastering a creative skill. These goals involve developing new capabilities over months or years, and you can’t predict all the challenges you’ll face. WOOP goals help you respond to obstacles as they appear rather than trying to plan everything upfront.

Your goal requires behavior change. Health goals (exercise consistency, dietary changes), relationship goals (active listening, setting boundaries), and productivity goals (focused work, reduced phone use) all involve changing established patterns. Research shows WOOP goals particularly effective for these challenges because they address the psychological obstacles—fatigue, temptation, discomfort—that derail behavior change [3][5].

Previous SMART goals failed. If you’ve set specific, measurable goals but still didn’t follow through, the problem likely wasn’t clarity. You probably knew exactly what to do. WOOP goals address the gap between knowing and doing by preparing you for the moments when you’ll want to quit.

The path forward involves learning and adaptation. Creative pursuits, entrepreneurial ventures, and complex skill development require trying approaches, getting feedback, and adjusting. SMART’s rigid structure works against this iterative process.

When SMART Still Works

Don’t abandon SMART entirely. The framework remains valuable for:

Short-term project deadlines where outcomes are largely within your control. “Complete client presentation by Thursday at 2 PM” benefits from SMART’s clarity without requiring obstacle planning.

Simple, measurable outcomes that don’t involve behavior change. “Send invoices to 15 clients by month-end” is straightforward task execution.

Team coordination where everyone needs the same target. When multiple people must align their work, SMART goals create shared understanding of what success looks like.

Compliance or tracking requirements in work settings. Many organizations use SMART goals for performance reviews. You can use WOOP goals privately to support achieving those SMART goals.

Combining Both Frameworks

The most effective approach often integrates both frameworks. Use WOOP goals to set your overall direction and create obstacle-response plans. Then use SMART elements to track specific milestones along the way.

For example, your WOOP goal might focus on becoming a better writer. Your obstacle: “I feel my writing isn’t good enough and avoid publishing.” Your plan: “If I judge my writing harshly, then I will publish it anyway and let readers decide its value.” Within this WOOP framework, you might set SMART milestones: complete 12 blog posts by December (specific, measurable, time-bound).

This combination works particularly well with comprehensive goal-setting frameworks that help you identify meaningful directions for different life areas. Tools like the From Vision to Action Life Goal Program help you clarify what matters most. WOOP goals then provide the obstacle-planning structure to actually achieve those priorities.

How to Create Your First WOOP Goal

Step-by-Step Guide

Set aside 15 minutes in a quiet space with paper or a digital note-taking tool.

Step 1: Choose Your Wish (2 minutes)

Think of something you genuinely want to create in your life. Make it challenging but feasible—something that excites you but feels possible. Write it in 3-6 words. Examples: “Master data visualization,” “Build morning exercise habit,” “Launch consulting business,” “Learn conversational Spanish.”

Avoid wishes that are too vague (“be happier”) or purely about other people (“get my boss to appreciate me”). Focus on changes you can influence through your actions.

Step 2: Visualize the Outcome (3 minutes)

Close your eyes. Imagine you’ve achieved this wish. Where are you? What are you doing? Who’s around you? How does success feel in your body? Let yourself experience the positive emotions.

Open your eyes and write 2-3 sentences capturing the best result. Be specific about what you see and feel: “I’m presenting data insights to the executive team and they’re nodding, asking thoughtful questions. I feel confident and valued because I can show patterns they hadn’t noticed.”

Step 3: Identify Your Main Obstacle (5 minutes)

This is the most critical step. Ask yourself: “What inside me prevents this wish from becoming reality?”

Focus on internal obstacles you can influence. External circumstances matter, but WOOP goals work best with obstacles you can respond to: your thoughts, emotions, impulses, or habits. Common obstacles include:

Write down several obstacles, then pick the one most likely to derail you. Be honest. The obstacle that makes you uncomfortable to acknowledge is often the right one.

Step 4: Create Your If-Then Plan (3 minutes)

Format your plan as: “If [specific obstacle occurs], then I will [concrete action].”

Make the action immediately doable—something that takes seconds to minutes, not hours. The action should move you toward your wish even minimally.

Examples of strong plans:

• “If I feel too tired to work out after work, then I will change into workout clothes and do 10 minutes of exercise.”
• “If I judge my writing as not good enough, then I will remind myself that practice matters more than perfection and publish it anyway.”
• “If I’m confused by tutorial instructions, then I will write down my specific question and ask in the community forum.”

Test your plan: Can you visualize yourself taking this action the moment the obstacle appears? If not, make it simpler or more specific.

Making WOOP Part of Your System

WOOP goals work best as a recurring practice, not a one-time exercise. Here’s how to integrate it into your routine:

For major life goals, create a detailed 15-minute WOOP weekly. Use Sunday evening or Monday morning to prepare for the week ahead. This gives you time to reflect on which obstacles actually showed up and adjust your plans.

For daily challenges, do quick 5-minute WOOPs. Facing a difficult conversation? Take five minutes to identify your obstacle (“I’ll want to avoid conflict”) and create a plan (“If I want to back down, then I will pause, breathe, and state my perspective calmly”).

Combine WOOP goals with your morning routine for consistent implementation. Morning time provides natural space for the mental contrasting process before obstacles appear.

Track your if-then plans in whatever system you already use—bullet journal, productivity app, or simple notes file. The key is having your plans accessible when obstacles emerge. Consider linking WOOP goals with habit formation techniques for goals involving behavior change.

Real-World WOOP Examples

Career Change Example

Wish: Transition to UX design within 12 months

Outcome: I’m working at a design agency where I can see how my research improves products people use daily. I feel fulfilled using both analytical and creative skills. My confidence has grown because I proved I can change careers successfully.

Obstacle: Fear of applying without “enough” experience. I’ll see job postings requiring skills I don’t have yet and convince myself I’m not ready.

Plan: If I think I’m not ready to apply, then I will submit my application anyway and attach a cover letter explaining what I’m learning and why I’m excited about the role. The hiring manager can decide if I’m a fit—that’s their job, not mine.

Health Behavior Example

Wish: Exercise four times per week consistently

Outcome: I feel energized throughout the day instead of sluggish. My clothes fit better and I’m proud when I look in the mirror. I’ve proven to myself that I can maintain healthy habits even with a busy schedule.

Obstacle: Evening fatigue after work. By 6 PM I’m mentally drained and the couch feels more appealing than the gym.

Plan: If I feel too tired at 6 PM to do a full workout, then I will change into workout clothes and do just 15 minutes of walking or stretching. I can always extend it if I feel better, but 15 minutes is the minimum.

Skill Development Example

Wish: Master SQL for data analysis

Outcome: I can write complex queries independently and extract insights from large datasets. Colleagues come to me with data questions. I feel competent and valuable in my role.

Obstacle: Frustration when I can’t solve practice problems. I’ll stare at errors and feel stupid, then close my laptop and avoid practicing for days.

Plan: If I get frustrated with a SQL problem, then I will take a 5-minute break, come back, and work through one similar example from the tutorial before trying my problem again.

Creative Work Example

Wish: Publish weekly newsletter for six months

Outcome: I’ve built an audience of people who value my perspective. I’ve developed my writing voice and can clearly explain complex topics. Several opportunities have emerged because people discovered my work.

Obstacle: Perfectionism. I’ll rewrite the same paragraph five times and convince myself it’s not interesting enough to publish.

Plan: If I start rewriting the same section repeatedly, then I will set a 10-minute timer and move to the next section when it goes off. I’ll tell myself that published imperfect work beats unpublished perfect work every time.

Other Goal-Setting Alternatives to Consider

PACT Goals (Purposeful, Actionable, Continuous, Trackable)

PACT goals share WOOP goals’ output focus rather than outcome focus. Created by Anne-Laure Le Cunff, this framework emphasizes continuous action over achieving specific results.

The framework asks: Is your goal meaningful long-term (Purposeful)? Does it focus on outputs you control (Actionable)? Can you do it repeatedly without decision paralysis (Continuous)? Can you track with simple yes/no questions (Trackable)?

PACT works well for habit formation and ongoing creative work. “Publish 25 newsletters over 25 weeks” is PACT-friendly because you control the output. PACT goals lack WOOP’s structured obstacle-planning component, which research shows is critical for following through when motivation drops [3].

FAST Goals (Frequent, Ambitious, Specific, Transparent)

FAST goals, developed for organizational settings, address some SMART limitations. The framework emphasizes setting ambitious targets (not just “achievable” ones), discussing goals frequently throughout the year, making them transparent across teams, and keeping them specific [12].

Research from MIT Sloan Management Review found FAST goals more effective than SMART for driving strategy execution in companies [12]. The key advantage: encouraging ambition instead of safe, conservative targets.

For personal goals, FAST’s emphasis on frequent discussion and transparency matters less unless you’re working with an accountability partner or coach. The ambition element aligns well with WOOP goals’ approach to challenging goals.

OKRs (Objectives and Key Results)

OKRs combine aspirational objectives with measurable results that indicate progress toward those objectives. Google popularized this framework, and it works well for teams needing both ambitious vision and concrete metrics.

The structure: Set a qualitative objective (where you want to go), then define 3-5 key results (measurable outcomes showing you’re making progress). Example objective: “Become a recognized expert in sustainable design.” Key results might include speaking at two conferences, publishing four research-backed articles, and gaining 1,000 followers interested in sustainability.

OKRs work for personal goals but require more complexity than WOOP goals. If you want the aspirational elements without the measurement overhead, WOOP goals provide a simpler entry point.

Framework	Best For	Key Strength	Limitation
WOOP	Long-term personal goals	Research-backed obstacle planning	Requires honest introspection
SMART	Short-term tasks, team coordination	Clear metrics and timelines	Rigid, outcome-focused, discourages ambition
PACT	Habit building, creative work	Process emphasis, continuous improvement	Less structured than WOOP
FAST	Team goals, organizational strategy	Encourages ambitious targets	Requires frequent group discussion
OKRs	Organizational alignment	Links aspirations to measurable progress	Complex implementation, steep learning curve

For deeper exploration of different frameworks, see our guide comparing SMART, OKR, and FAST approaches.

Integrating WOOP with Your Life Goals Workbook

WOOP goals complement comprehensive goal-setting systems by adding obstacle-specific action planning to strategic vision work. The From Vision to Action Life Goal Program uses evidence-based frameworks to help you clarify values, identify priorities across life areas, and set meaningful annual goals.

Here’s how WOOP goals fit into that system:

The workbook helps you answer “What do I want?” across career, relationships, health, personal growth, and contribution. This strategic work identifies where to direct your energy. WOOP goals then answer “How will I handle the obstacles that will appear?”

For each major goal from your workbook, create a corresponding WOOP goal. If your workbook reveals “career growth” as a priority and you’ve set a goal around skill development, your WOOP goal identifies the specific internal obstacle that will stop you and creates an if-then plan.

The workbook provides the big picture—your vision, values, and strategic direction. WOOP goals provide the tactical plan for moments when that vision feels distant and obstacles feel immediate.

Consider this integration example: Your workbook process reveals that health has been neglected and you want to prioritize fitness. You set an annual goal: “Establish consistent exercise routine that supports energy and wellbeing.” Now create monthly WOOP goals that address different obstacles:

• Month 1 WOOP obstacle: “I don’t know which exercises to do and feel overwhelmed choosing.”
• Month 2 WOOP obstacle: “I skip workouts when my schedule gets unpredictable.”
• Month 3 WOOP obstacle: “I lose motivation when I don’t see visible results quickly.”

Each WOOP goal creates specific if-then plans while staying aligned with your larger annual goal. This combination gives you both strategic direction and tactical resilience.

Learn more about creating your comprehensive goal system with the From Vision to Action Life Goal Program.

Frequently Asked Questions

Conclusion

WOOP goals offer a research-backed alternative to SMART goals that addresses a critical limitation: they prepare you for obstacles instead of just defining outcomes. The framework synthesizes 20 years of psychological research on mental contrasting and implementation intentions, with studies showing WOOP goals can triple study time, reduce stress by 1.7 times, and increase goal-related actions by 60% compared to traditional approaches [3][4].

The key difference lies in how each framework handles the gap between intention and action. SMART helps you define clear targets but assumes you’ll figure out how to stay motivated. WOOP goals acknowledge that obstacles will appear—fear, fatigue, self-doubt, competing priorities—and create automatic if-then responses for those moments [10].

WOOP goals work best for ambitious long-term goals involving skill development, behavior change, or creative work where the path forward involves learning and adaptation. SMART goals remain valuable for short-term coordination tasks, team alignment, and situations requiring clear metrics. The most effective approach often combines both: WOOP goals for direction and obstacle-planning, SMART for tracking milestones.

The From Vision to Action Life Goal Program integrates naturally with WOOP goals by providing the strategic clarity about what matters most, while WOOP goals provide tactical resilience for achieving those priorities despite inevitable obstacles.

Next 10 Minutes

• Choose one goal where SMART hasn’t worked for you
• Complete a WOOP exercise: write your Wish (3-6 words), visualize the Outcome, identify your main Obstacle, create your if-then Plan
• Write your if-then plan somewhere you’ll see it when the obstacle appears

This Week

• Apply WOOP goals to 2-3 different life areas (career, health, relationships, skills)
• Notice when obstacles appear and test whether your if-then plans feel natural to implement
• Adjust plans based on what works—if your action feels too complex or vague, make it simpler and more specific
• Explore the From Vision to Action Life Goal Program for a comprehensive system combining strategic vision work with obstacle-planning approaches

References

1. Oettingen, G. (2012). Future thought and behaviour change. European Review of Social Psychology, 23, 1-63.
2. Gollwitzer, P. M., & Sheeran, P. (2006). Implementation intentions and goal achievement: A meta-analysis of effects and processes. Advances in Experimental Social Psychology, 38, 69-119.
3. Wang, G., Wang, Y., & Gai, X. (2021). A Meta-Analysis of the Effects of Mental Contrasting With Implementation Intentions on Goal Attainment. Frontiers in Psychology, 12, 565202.
4. Duckworth, A. L., Kirby, T. A., Gollwitzer, A., & Oettingen, G. (2013). From fantasy to action: Mental contrasting with implementation intentions (MCII) improves academic performance in children. Social Psychological and Personality Science, 4(6), 745-753.
5. Stadler, G., Oettingen, G., & Gollwitzer, P. M. (2009). Effects of a self-regulation intervention on women’s physical activity. American Journal of Preventive Medicine, 36(1), 29-34.
6. Pietsch, S., Riddell, H., Semmler, C., Ntoumanis, N., & Gucciardi, D. F. (2024). SMART goals are no more effective for creative performance than do-your best goals or non-specific, exploratory ‘open goals’. Educational Psychology, 44, 946-962.
7. Hawkins, M., et al. (2020). The (over)use of SMART goals for physical activity promotion: A narrative review and critique. Health Psychology Review, 15(2), 211-238.
8. Cross, A., & Sheffield, D. (2019). Mental contrasting for health behaviour change: A systematic review and meta-analysis of effects and moderator variables. Health Psychology Review, 13(2), 209-225.
9. Adriaanse, M. A., Oettingen, G., Gollwitzer, P. M., Hennes, E. P., De Ridder, D. T. D., & De Wit, J. B. F. (2010). When planning is not enough: Fighting unhealthy snacking habits by mental contrasting with implementation intentions (MCII). European Journal of Social Psychology, 40(7), 1277-1293.
10. Oettingen, G., Wittchen, M., & Gollwitzer, P. M. (2013). Regulating goal pursuit through mental contrasting with implementation intentions. In E. A. Locke & G. P. Latham (Eds.), New developments in goal setting and task performance (pp. 523-548). Routledge.
11. Kappes, A., Singmann, H., & Oettingen, G. (2012). Mental contrasting instigates goal pursuit by linking obstacles of reality with instrumental behavior. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 48(4), 811-818.
12. Sull, D., & Sull, C. (2018). With goals, FAST beats SMART. MIT Sloan Management Review, 59(4), 1-11.