Most people start in the wrong place
You have probably seen the headlines: lion’s mane mushrooms boost memory, cold plunges increase norepinephrine by 300%, or the latest nootropic stack promises 15% cognitive gains. So you try one thing. Maybe it works. Maybe you feel nothing. Then you add something else, expecting effects to multiply, and suddenly you cannot tell what is actually working from what is placebo noise.
The real problem is simpler: most people try to optimize the penthouse while the foundation is crumbling. Research shows that sleep deprivation impairs attention and processing speed by 25-40% [1], making consistent sleep the single highest-leverage cognitive intervention. A single supplement might add 5-10% on top of a solid foundation – but that does not make for compelling podcast episodes, so it gets buried under posts about the latest nootropic.
Biohacking cognitive performance is not about finding the most cutting-edge intervention – it is about building a reproducible system where you measure what actually works for your brain, not what works for someone else’s. These neurohacking techniques only produce reliable results when applied in the right sequence, starting with foundations rather than enhancements.
What is biohacking cognitive performance?
Biohacking cognitive performance is the systematic optimization of brain function through measurable, repeatable interventions prioritized by evidence and personal response tracking – testing sleep, nutrition, movement, stress management, and targeted enhancements one variable at a time to find what actually improves your specific cognitive output.
The key word is measurable. Without baseline data, you are guessing. Real biohacking is not intuition – it is establishing where you are, changing one variable, and checking whether your metrics actually improved. This is what separates evidence-based cognitive enhancement from the supplement trends that cycle through social media every season.
What you will learn
- Why the biohacking hierarchy matters more than any single hack
- How to establish baselines and test interventions using the 30-day self-experimentation framework
- The three-layer Cognitive Performance Stack for sustainable improvement
- Common mistakes that waste time and money
- How to measure cognitive gains without expensive testing
Key takeaways
- Sleep deprivation impairs attention and processing speed by 25-40% – a larger deficit than any supplement can offset – yet most people chase more exotic interventions [1].
- Metabolic switching via intermittent fasting enhances cognitive resilience when sleep and stress are managed first [2].
- Multi-domain lifestyle interventions (combining sleep, exercise, nutrition, and stress management) produce significantly larger cognitive gains than single-domain approaches [3].
- Transcranial photobiomodulation improves attention in 82.9% of studies, but costs $300-800 and is not necessary if foundational habits are solid [6].
- Cold exposure acutely impairs working memory and reaction time – psychological resilience gains are real, but immediate focus improvements are overstated [4].
- The Cognitive Performance Stack prioritizes sustainable habits over exotic compounds and maximizes ROI.
- One-month testing cycles beat long-term commitments: establish baselines, test one variable, measure for 30 days, then decide whether to keep it.
The biohacking hierarchy: foundation before optimization
The first mistake most biohackers make is treating all interventions equally. They are not. Some interventions are foundational – without them, everything else fails. Others are meaningful enhancements layered on top. A few are experimental optimizations that only work if the first two layers are solid.
Layer 1: The foundation (non-negotiable)
Your brain runs on basic fuel: consistent sleep, real nutrition, and movement. These are not glamorous, but they are deterministic. Sleep consistency shows the highest evidence density for cognitive improvement among all lifestyle interventions. Sleep deprivation impairs attention and processing speed by 25-40% compared to well-rested baselines, even when total sleep hours appear similar on paper [1]. This is not marginal. This is foundational.
Why sleep is the non-negotiable foundation:
During sleep, your brain consolidates memories, clears metabolic waste through the glymphatic system – a waste-clearance network that operates almost entirely during sleep – and resets neurotransmitter balances. Inconsistent sleep breaks this process at the neurochemical level.
Glymphatic system: The brain’s waste-clearance network, consisting of channels surrounding blood vessels in the brain through which cerebrospinal fluid flows during sleep. The glymphatic system removes toxic proteins including beta-amyloid and tau, whose accumulation is associated with cognitive decline. The system operates at approximately 10x higher efficiency during sleep than during wakefulness.
You cannot supplement your way around neurobiology. Decades of sleep research document this: irregular sleep undermines every cognitive domain from attention to decision-making.
Nutrition’s role as foundation:
Nutrition’s role is similarly foundational but more flexible than people think. You do not need a special diet – you need enough protein (to sustain neurotransmitter precursors), enough omega-3 fatty acids (for neuronal membrane integrity), and stable blood glucose (for attention). A 2025 meta-analysis found that each 2000mg daily dose of omega-3 improved attention, perceptual speed, and global cognitive abilities, with optimal effects around 2000-3000mg per day rather than mega-doses [5]. The mechanism is straightforward: your neurons literally need omega-3 for membrane fluidity and cell signaling.
Movement as the third foundation pillar:
Movement is the third foundational pillar. High-intensity interval training increases BDNF (brain-derived neurotrophic factor), which supports neuroplasticity and memory encoding. Even 20 minutes of HIIT three times per week produces measurable cognitive gains. The mechanism: HIIT triggers a neurochemical cascade upregulating growth factors in the hippocampus, the brain region critical for memory formation. Multi-domain intervention research confirms that combining exercise with other lifestyle improvements produces significantly larger cognitive gains than exercise alone [3]. Regular resistance training has similar effects plus the added benefit of maintaining executive function as you age.
Layer 2: Strategic enhancements (high ROI, medium effort)
Once sleep, nutrition, and movement are consistent, enhancements become relevant. Stress management is the most important here. Chronic stress literally shrinks the hippocampus and prefrontal cortex, undermining memory and executive function. Elevated cortisol disrupts the very neural structures you are trying to enhance. Meditation, strategic rest days, and movement all reduce cortisol and support cognitive function.
Light exposure matters more than most people realize. Researchers using transcranial photobiomodulation (near-infrared light therapy) – a neurohacking technique that stimulates mitochondrial ATP production – found that 82.9% of studies reported positive cognitive improvements in executive function and attention [6]. Transcranial photobiomodulation works by stimulating the mitochondrial enzyme cytochrome c oxidase (an enzyme in your mitochondria that produces cellular energy), increasing ATP (adenosine triphosphate, your cells’ primary energy currency) production in neurons. But this is only worth pursuing if your sleep schedule is solid and your stress is managed.
Hedonic adaptation: The neurological process by which your brain adjusts its baseline in response to a sustained change, making previously noticeable improvements feel normal. In biohacking, hedonic adaptation means an intervention continues working at the same measurable level even after you stop noticing the subjective effect. Objective measurement is the defense against misinterpreting adaptation as failure.
Targeted supplementation belongs here too. Once the foundation is locked in, evidence-backed supplements like creatine, L-theanine, or bacopa can push cognition higher. Creatine monohydrate has extensive research, including 16 randomized controlled trials involving 492 participants, supporting its effects on memory and processing speed, particularly in people over 40 [7].
Layer 3: Advanced optimization (low ROI, high cost)
Neurofeedback, transcranial stimulation, advanced nootropic stacking, and fasting protocols live here. They work, but only if layers 1 and 2 are solid. A person with erratic sleep trying neurofeedback is throwing money at the wrong problem. Skip this tier until the foundation is boring and predictable.
Building the Cognitive Performance Stack: a three-layer system
The Cognitive Performance Stack – a system we developed for organizing cognitive enhancements in priority order – prevents the “try everything at once” trap that derails most biohackers. The stack functions as a hierarchy, with interventions tested sequentially rather than simultaneously.
Layer 1: The stability foundation
- Sleep: Same bedtime and wake time (+/- 30 minutes), 7-9 hours
- Nutrition: 100-150g protein daily, 2000-3000mg omega-3 weekly, stable blood sugar
- Movement: 150 minutes moderate activity per week or 75 minutes HIIT per week
Layer 2: The resilience layer
- Stress management: 10 minutes daily meditation, daily walks, or equivalent cortisol-management practice
- Light exposure: 15 minutes morning sunlight daily or 10-minute light therapy sessions 3x weekly
- Sleep hygiene: Cool, dark room; no screens 60 minutes before bed; consistent caffeine cutoff time
Layer 3: The performance layer
- Cognitive baseline testing: Monthly reaction time test, memory span test, sustained attention test using free tools
- Strategic supplementation: Start with one supplement (creatine, L-theanine, or bacopa), test for 30 days, measure results, decide to keep or drop
- Advanced protocols: Only after 90 days of consistent Layers 1 and 2, then consider neurofeedback, metabolic switching, or device-based interventions
For research on how sleep specifically affects the cognitive foundations this stack relies on, see our sleep and focus connection guide.
How to self-experiment with your cognitive performance in 30 days
Your first cognitive biohacking month is not about adding interventions – it is about establishing baselines and testing whether Layer 1 improvements alone produce measurable changes. This is where the data starts. Without it, everything else is guesswork.
| Week | Phase | Activity |
|---|---|---|
| Week 1 | Baseline | Test reaction time, memory span, sustained attention, sleep consistency, clarity (1-10) |
| Weeks 2-4 | Stabilize | Implement one Layer 1 intervention consistently (sleep timing recommended) |
| Day 31 | Retest | Run the same baseline tests and compare improvement |
Week 1: Establish your baseline
Before changing anything, measure where you are. This takes 30 minutes:
1. Reaction time baseline: Go to humanbenchmark.com and complete the reaction time test (free). Record your average in milliseconds. Run it three times and average for stability.
2. Memory span baseline: Use the same site’s memory test. Record your longest sequence. Sequential single-variable testing is what real biohacking looks like at this stage.
3. Sustained attention baseline: Set a timer and maintain focus on one task for 25 minutes without distraction. Record pass or fail. This measures your baseline attention span without interventions.
4. Sleep data baseline: Use your phone’s default sleep tracking or download Sleep Cycle (free version). Record your average sleep duration and consistency score for a week. Consistency matters more than total hours – +/- 15 minutes is excellent; +/- 90 minutes is poor.
5. Subjective clarity baseline: Rate your “mental clarity right now” on a 1-10 scale. It is subjective and imperfect, but it tracks something real about how your brain feels.
N-of-1 experiment: A clinical trial design applied to a single subject, where the individual serves as both the experimental and control group across alternating conditions. In biohacking, the N-of-1 approach means testing one variable at a time against your own personal baseline rather than comparing to population averages. This approach accounts for individual genetic variation in response to interventions.
Measurement is the foundation of real biohacking. Without baseline data, you cannot know whether improvements are real or imagined. You are essentially running a single-subject N-of-1 experiment on yourself.
Week 2-4: Stabilize one foundation layer
Pick one foundation layer – sleep is best because it affects everything else. Your goal is not perfection. It is consistency.
For sleep: Set a target bedtime and wake time (e.g., 11pm bed, 7am wake). Stick to it within +/- 30 minutes every day for 21 days. Remove screens from your bedroom. One hour before bed, dimmed lights and no work. This sounds obvious, and it is – most people do not do it because it is boring. But boring consistency beats exciting inconsistency.
Measure sleep consistency using your phone’s built-in tracker. Record the data weekly. Plot it on a spreadsheet if you want to see the trend. Visual representation of improvement often motivates people more than raw numbers.
Week 4: Retest your cognitive baselines
Run the same tests from Week 1 and compare:
- Did your reaction time improve? (A 5-10% improvement is meaningful)
- Did your memory span increase? (Even one extra digit is significant)
- Did your sustained attention improve? (Can you hit 30-minute focus blocks now?)
- Did your sleep consistency improve? (This is the most likely metric to change)
Record these results. This is your evidence. If you improved on multiple metrics, you have discovered that sleep consistency alone is worth optimizing. Most people see 10-15% improvements in processing speed and attention just from this. If nothing changed, you know your cognitive issues are not sleep-driven, and you need to test a different layer.
How to add targeted interventions without losing your mind
Once Layer 1 is stable, the temptation is to add everything at once – a supplement stack, light therapy, cold plunges, and fasting all together. This is how biohacking fails. You cannot tell which intervention is working, which is placebo, and which is actually hurting you.
Instead: Test one variable at a time for 30 days.
Example: Testing a supplement
Say you want to test creatine monohydrate (a supplement with strong evidence for memory and processing speed). Creatine works by replenishing ATP in neurons during high cognitive demand, supporting energy availability during sustained mental work.
Days 1-7: Establish your baseline using reaction time, memory span, and sustained attention tests from above. Record your baseline mood and energy levels (1-10 scale).
Days 8-30: Take 5g creatine daily (typical dose). Change nothing else. Keep your sleep, exercise, and nutrition identical to the foundation month. This is critical – if you change three variables, you have no idea which one worked.
Day 31: Retest reaction time, memory span, sustained attention. Compare to baseline. Did reaction time drop 5%? Did you solve problems 10% faster on the memory test? Did you sustain focus longer?
Result: If metrics improved 5%+ and stayed improved, creatine is a keeper. If nothing changed, you have data. If you felt worse, you know creatine is not for your chemistry.
Evidence-backed supplement comparison
| Supplement | Evidence Level | Typical Dose |
|---|---|---|
| Creatine monohydrate | Strong (16 RCTs, 492 participants) [7] | 5g daily |
| Omega-3 fatty acids | Strong (2025 meta-analysis) [5] | 2000-3000mg daily |
| L-theanine (+ caffeine) | Moderate (multiple RCTs) | 100-200mg |
| Bacopa monnieri | Moderate (memory retention) | 300mg daily |
Sequential single-variable testing is what real biohacking looks like: boring, data-driven, one variable at a time. It is not sexy, but it works because it is scientifically rigorous.
Common biohacking mistakes that waste time and money
Mistake 1: The supplement stack trap
Biohackers often combine creatine, L-theanine, bacopa, lion’s mane, and omega-3 in the same month, thinking synergy will multiply effects. Instead, you are lost. If you improve, which one caused it? If you feel worse, which one is the culprit? With five variables changed, you have 32 possible outcome combinations and no way to assign causation.
Fix: Test supplements sequentially, not in parallel. One per month, measured against baseline.
Mistake 2: Ignoring hedonic adaptation
You add a supplement or change your sleep schedule and feel amazing for two weeks. Then the improvement plateaus – not because the intervention stopped working, but because your brain adapted to the new normal. You feel the difference when it changes, not when it is stable.
New biohackers interpret this as “this is not working anymore” and abandon it. Better approach: Expect the improvement to plateau. Measure the new baseline against the old one. If you are 10% better than before, the intervention is still working – you are just not feeling the novelty anymore. The numbers do not lie, even if your subjective experience does.
Mistake 3: Chasing marginal improvements at high cost
A $400 neurofeedback device might give you 2% additional focus improvement. But you are not getting the last 98% from the device – you are getting it from sleep, exercise, and nutrition. The biohacker considering Layer 3 should ask: “Is 2% worth $400?” Usually, it is not. Better to double down on something that costs nothing (more sleep consistency) and yields 10%.
Mistake 4: Not adjusting for tolerance or individual differences
Research suggests caffeine improves focus in most people but can worsen anxiety or disrupt sleep in a meaningful subset, due to genetic variation in caffeine metabolism (some people clear caffeine in 2 hours, others in 12 hours). Cold exposure increases norepinephrine in some people and impairs cognition in others. This is real biology, not placebo.
Your biohacking protocol needs to be personalized, not borrowed. This is why the one-month testing is important – you are finding out which interventions you respond to, not which ones the internet swears by.
Mistake 5: Forgetting that diminishing returns accelerate
The first 30 days of sleep consistency might yield 20% cognitive gain. The next 30 days yields maybe 5% more. By month three, you are optimizing sleep to squeeze out 2% gains. Meanwhile, you have not touched nutrition or movement yet. Your effort-to-benefit curve flattens quickly. Recognize this and stay focused on high-leverage interventions.
Measuring real cognitive improvement without expensive testing
Most people assume you need expensive biomarker testing to know if biohacking is working. You do not. Free tools exist and they are valid.
For attention and processing speed: Humanbenchmark.com tracks reaction time and processing speed with millisecond precision. Test monthly. A 5-10% improvement is real.
For memory: Use the same site’s memory test. Record your longest sequence. Or use Lumosity’s memory tests (some free, some paid). Memory span improvements of even one digit are statistically meaningful.
For sustained attention: The Pomodoro test – how many 25-minute focus blocks can you complete in a day without context switching? Track weekly. If you went from 3 per day to 5 per day, attention improved significantly. This is a practical, work-relevant metric.
For executive function: Use the Wisconsin Card Sort Test (free version online) or track your decision-making speed – how long does it take you to make routine decisions? Improved executive function shows as faster, cleaner decisions. Write down decision times for a week, then retest after your intervention month.
For sleep quality: Use your phone’s default sleep tracker or download Sleep Cycle ($9.99, worth it). Track not just hours but consistency – same sleep time every night matters more than total hours. The variance metric matters more than the average.
For mood and energy: Rate mood (1-10) and energy (1-10) every morning for a month. Graph it. Cognitive improvements correlate with mood stability. You are optimizing how you feel and function daily, not just raw IQ gains.
These are not perfect biomarkers – they are not cortisol levels or BDNF measures. But they are valid proxies, they are free, and they are repeatable. If your reaction time improves 8%, your memory span goes up by two digits, and your sustained attention increases from 3 to 5 Pomodoros daily, something real is happening.
Ramon’s take
I will be honest: I am not particularly good at this. I have tried to build cognitive optimization stacks more than once and fallen into the supplement trap – buying nootropics I half-understood for problems I never actually measured. I took lion’s mane for three months, felt vaguely smarter, and could not tell if that was real or expectation.
What changed for me was obsessing over measurement. The moment I started actually tracking reaction time and sleep consistency, things got real. I realized my cognition swung 20% month-to-month based on sleep variance alone – and all my supplements were chasing the remaining 5% while ignoring the 20% I could control for free. That reframe was humbling.
The other thing: cold exposure is overblown in the popular version. Yes, research shows norepinephrine elevation, but systematic reviews also show acute cold generally impairs immediate cognitive function [4].
The resilience vs. cognition distinction is important here. Where the real benefit is – and where I have seen it in my own life – is in psychological resilience. A cold plunge does not make you smarter on day one. But building the habit of doing something uncomfortable, measuring yourself anyway, and not letting discomfort derail you builds mental toughness that supports long-term cognitive consistency. That is worth something, but it is a different claim than “cold plunges enhance focus.” Be honest about which benefit you are actually pursuing.
Conclusion: your next steps
Biohacking cognitive performance is not about finding the one hack that changes everything. The practice of biohacking cognitive performance is about building a reproducible system where you establish what works for your specific brain, measure it honestly, and iterate. Most people will find that the first 80% of cognitive improvement comes from sleep consistency, basic nutrition, and regular movement. The remaining 20% comes from targeted interventions tested one variable at a time.
Start with Layer 1 of the Cognitive Performance Stack. Lock down sleep, nutrition, and movement for 30 days. Test yourself. Most people will not need anything beyond that. The ones who do will have data showing exactly which intervention to pursue next. You will move through the stack systematically, not randomly, and you will have evidence for every decision.
The biohack worth more than any supplement: measuring what actually works for your brain.
Next 10 minutes
- Go to humanbenchmark.com and establish your reaction time, memory span, and processing speed baselines. Record the numbers in a spreadsheet.
- Check your phone’s sleep tracking for the past week – what is your average sleep time and consistency? Note whether your sleep varies by 15 minutes or 90 minutes night-to-night.
- Commit to one Layer 1 intervention for the next 30 days: consistent bedtime/wake time, adequate protein intake, or three movement sessions per week.
This week
- Maintain your Layer 1 commitment every day this week (no exceptions).
- Record your baseline cognitive metrics again on day 7.
- Plan when you will retest your full cognitive baseline on day 30.
- Block the one-month testing date on your calendar now – you will not do it if you do not schedule it.
There is more to explore
For deeper understanding of how focus connects to overall well-being, explore our well-being and focus connection guide. You might also benefit from resources on brain fog causes and solutions, optimizing your environment for focus, sleep and cognitive function, and nutrition for mental performance.
Related articles in this guide
- brain-fog-causes-solutions
- cognitive-ergonomics-cognitive-load-management
- integrating-aromatherapy-into-your-daily-routine
Frequently asked questions
What is biohacking cognitive performance and how is it different from taking nootropics?
Biohacking cognitive performance is a systematic approach to optimizing brain function through measurable, repeatable interventions prioritized by evidence and personal testing. Taking nootropics is just one tool within that system. The key difference: biohacking requires measurement and personalization. You test whether an intervention actually works for your brain, not just whether it worked for someone else on the internet. Nootropics are Layer 3 interventions in the Cognitive Performance Stack – useful only after the foundation is solid.
Do I really need supplements to biohack my cognition?
No. In fact, most people will see larger cognitive improvements from fixing sleep consistency, adequate protein intake, and regular exercise than from any supplement. Supplements are Layer 3 in the Cognitive Performance Stack – useful only after sleep, nutrition, and movement are locked in. Research shows that sleep deprivation alone impairs attention and processing speed by 25-40% [1]. Start with the foundation before spending money on supplements.
How long does it take to see results from cognitive biohacking?
Sleep consistency improvements show up in 7-14 days. Reaction time and attention improvements from exercise take 3-4 weeks. Supplement effects typically appear after 30 days of consistent use, but many require 90 days for full benefit. The timeline depends on which intervention you are testing and which cognitive domain you are targeting.
Is cold exposure really good for cognitive performance?
Cold exposure has mixed evidence for cognition. Acute cold exposure actually impairs working memory, reaction time, and executive function – even though it elevates norepinephrine [4]. The cognitive benefits come not from the cold itself but from building psychological resilience through repeated uncomfortable stimulus. If you enjoy cold plunges, the mental toughness benefit is real. But do not expect immediate focus improvement.
What supplements have the strongest evidence for cognitive improvement?
Creatine monohydrate (5g daily) improves memory and processing speed with extensive research support including 16 randomized controlled trials [7]. Omega-3 supplementation (2000-3000mg daily) improves attention and perceptual speed with strong dose-response evidence [5]. L-theanine (100-200mg) paired with caffeine improves attention without jitteriness. Bacopa monnieri improves memory retention. Test one at a time for 30 days, measuring against your baseline, rather than stacking multiple supplements simultaneously.
Can light therapy really improve focus and cognition?
Yes, but with caveats. Transcranial photobiomodulation (near-infrared light therapy) improves executive function, attention, and memory in 82.9% of studies [6]. It works by stimulating cytochrome c oxidase, increasing ATP production in neurons. However, it is expensive ($300-800 for a device) and only worth pursuing after sleep, stress management, and basic nutrition are solid. The ROI is typically 2-5% cognitive improvement on top of what you get from the foundation.
What is metabolic switching and does it help cognition?
Metabolic switching is the shift from using glucose as your primary brain fuel to using ketones, which happens during fasting or very-low-carb eating. Research shows periods of fasting enhance cognition, mood, and brain resilience through ketone production, which provides more stable energy for neurons [2]. However, this only works when sleep and stress are managed first. Try intermittent fasting (16:8 schedule) after mastering Layer 1 foundation habits.
How do I know if biohacking is actually working or if it is just placebo?
Measure objectively. Use reaction time tests, memory span tests, and sustained attention timers. Track numbers. If your reaction time dropped 5%, your memory span increased by two digits, or you completed 30% more Pomodoro blocks, something real happened. Subjective feelings can be placebo. Objective metrics cannot. This is why the first week of biohacking is all about establishing baselines – data is your defense against self-deception.
References
[1] Goel N, Rao H, Durmer JS, Dinges DF. (2009) Neurocognitive consequences of sleep deprivation. Seminars in Neurology. 29(4):320-339. https://doi.org/10.1055/s-0029-1237117
[2] Newman JC, Verdin E. (2017) Ketone bodies as signaling metabolites. Trends in Endocrinology and Metabolism. 25(1):42-52. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tem.2013.09.002
[3] Ngandu T, Lehtisalo J, Solomon A, et al. (2015) A 2 year multidomain intervention of diet, exercise, cognitive training, and vascular risk monitoring versus control to prevent cognitive decline in at-risk elderly people (FINGER): a randomised controlled trial. The Lancet. 385(9984):2255-2263. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0140-6736(15)60461-5
[4] Muenter NK, Weller RS, Breeckels JL. (2010) Acute cold exposure and cognitive function: Evidence for sustained impairment. Ergonomics. 47(14):1427-1437. https://doi.org/10.1080/00140130410001715987
[5] Zhang YP, Guo XL, Chu M, et al. (2025) Omega-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids and cognitive function: A systematic review and dose-response meta-analysis. Nature. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-025-16129-8
[6] Salgado ASA, Wissmann P, Pauli JF, et al. (2023) Can transcranial photobiomodulation improve cognitive function? A systematic review of human studies. Journal of Translational Medicine. 21(1):231. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12967-023-03988-w
[7] Kreider RB, Kalman DS, Antonio J, et al. (2017) International Society of Sports Nutrition position stand: Safety and efficacy of creatine supplementation in exercise, sport, and medicine. Journal of the International Society of Sports Nutrition. 14(1):18. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12970-017-0173-0
